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Entry
CA00416                                                            
Classification
Carotenoid Name
Violaxanthin
IUPAC name (3S,5R,6S,3'S,5'R,6'S)-5,6:5',6'-Diepoxy-5,6,5',6'-tetrahydro-beta,beta-carotene-3,3'-diol
Formula
C40H56O4
Molecular Weight 
600.848 g/mol
Structure      Search similar carotenoids

Mol file
Carotenoid DB Fingerprints 
Biological functions/Properties 
  • Photoprotective activity (Ref.428).
  • Photosynthetic pigment in higher plants (Ref.415, Ref.428, Ref.503).
  • Xanthophyll cycle pigment.
  • Anticarcinogenic activity - antiproliferative alone, early apoptosis effect in MCF-7 cell (Ref.493).
  • Non-proviramin A (Ref.466).
  • Pale yellow color (Ref.779)
  • Yellow food coloring (Ref.468).
  • Effective MDR modulator (Ref.493).
    • Number of
    conjugated double bonds 
    9
    Number of
    conjugated multiple bonds 
    9
    Isomers 
    InChI

    InChIKey

    Canonical SMILES

    XLogP
    8.964
    Hydrogen Bond donors
    (Lipinski's definition)
    2
    Hydrogen Bond Acceptors
    (Lipinski's definition)
    4
    LipinskiFailures
    1
    Complexity of molecule
    0.320
    Number of heavy atoms
    44
    TPSA
    (Topological Polar Surface Area) 
    65.520 Å2
    Reaction
  • Substrate: CR00042,  CR00089,  CR00166,  CR00454,  CR00464,  CR00465,  CR00358,  CR00381,  CR00382,  CR00385,  CR00420
  • Product: CR00159,  CR00453
    • Pathway
  • Pathway: CB000038,  CB000040,  CB000042,  CB000064,  CB000071,  CB000080,  CB000081,  CB000147,  CB000148,  CB000150,  CB000131
    • Major carotenoid information
    Dominant pigment in chrysophytes, eustigmatophytes, synurophytes, mesostigmatophytes, chlorophytes, prasinophytes, dinoflagellates (Ref.707), and in land plants (Ref.732). Major in a flower petal Mimulus lewisii (Lewis' monkeyflower). (Ref.706), and in Japanese citrus fruit ponkan mandarin (Ref.723).
    Minor carotenoid information
    Minor in chlorarachniophytes, pinguiophytes and raphidophytes (Ref.707). Minor in Chrysanthemum flower (Ref.736).
    Source organisms
    Halomicronema hongdechloris (Ref.678) - A Chl f-containing filamentous cyanobacterium purified from stromatolites of Shark Bay, Wes-tern Australia. "hong-de-chloris" represents "red chlorophyll" in Chinese. (Ref.678) (Cyanobacteria - Leptolyngbyaceae)
    Laurencia gardneri (Ref.10) - Red alga: Ceramiales (Rhodophyta - Rhodomelaceae)
    Polysiphonia pacifica (Ref.10) - Red alga: Ceramiales (Rhodophyta - Rhodomelaceae)
    Bossiella orbignyana (Ref.10) - Red alga: Corallinales (Rhodophyta - Corallinaceae)
    Corallina officinalis (Ref.10) - Red alga: Corallinales (Rhodophyta - Corallinaceae)
    Corallina vancouverensis (Ref.10) - Red alga: Corallinales (Rhodophyta - Corallinaceae)
    Jania tenella (Ref.10) - Red alga: Corallinales (Rhodophyta - Corallinaceae)
    Bossiella californica (Ref.10) - Red alga: Corallinales (Rhodophyta - Corallinaceae)
    Calliarthron tuberculosum (Ref.10) - Red alga: Corallinales (Rhodophyta - Corallinaceae)
    Gracilaria textorii (Ref.10) - Red alga: Gigartinales (Rhodophyta - Gracilariaceae)
    Gracilaria gracilis (Ref.10) - Red alga: Gigartinales (Rhodophyta - Gracilariaceae)
    Gracilariopsis lemaneiformis (Ref.10) - Red alga: Gigartinales (Rhodophyta - Gracilariaceae)
    Smithora naiadum (Ref.10) - Red alga: Compsopogonophyceae (Rhodophyta - Erythropeltidaceae)
    Chlamydomonas parkeae (Ref.15) - Green alga: Chlamydomonadales, unicellular marine flagellate (Chlorophyta - Chlamydomonadaceae)
    Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (Ref.12, Ref.13, Ref.14) - Green alga: Chlamydomonadales, unicellular green alga (Chlorophyta - Chlamydomonadaceae)
    Tetracystis aplanosporum (Ref.18) - Green alga: Chlamydomonadales (Chlorophyta - Chlamydomonadales)
    Tetracystis intermidium (Ref.18) - Green alga: Chlamydomonadales (Chlorophyta - Chlamydomonadales)
    Tetracystis tetrasporum (Ref.18) - Green alga: Chlamydomonadales (Chlorophyta - Chlamydomonadales)
    Tetracystis sp. (Ref.18) - Green alga: Chlamydomonadales (Chlorophyta - Chlamydomonadales)
    Protosiphon botryoides (Ref.16, Ref.17) - Green alga: Chlamydomonadales (Chlorophyta - Chlamydomonadales)
    Chlorococcum citriforme (Ref.18) - Green alga: Chlamydomonadales (Chlorophyta - Chlamydomonadales)
    Neospongiococcum gelatinosum (Ref.18) - Green alga: Chlamydomonadales (Chlorophyta - Chlamydomonadales)
    Chlorella zofingiensis (Ref.18) - Green alga: Scenedesmaceae (Chlorophyta - Chromochloridaceae)
    Muriella aurantiaca (Ref.18) - Green alga: Scenedesmaceae (Chlorophyta - Pseudomuriellaceae)
    Coelastrum proboscideum (Ref.18) - Green alga: Scenedesmaceae (Chlorophyta - Scenedesmaceae)
    Chlorella fusca (Ref.18) - Green alga: Scenedesmaceae (Chlorophyta - Scenedesmaceae)
    Ankistrodesmus spp. (Ref.16) - Green alga: Scenedesmaceae (Chlorophyta - Selenastraceae)
    Microdictyon boergesenii (Ref.24) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Anadyomenaceae)
    Basicladia sp. (Ref.24) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Cladophoraceae)
    Chaetomorpha okamurae (Ref.24) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Cladophoraceae)
    Cladophora horii (Ref.24) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Cladophoraceae)
    Cladophora kosterae (Ref.24) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Cladophoraceae)
    Aegagrophila linnaei (Ref.24) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Cladophoraceae)
    Chaetomorpha crassa (Ref.24) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Cladophoraceae)
    Cladophora conchopheria (Ref.24) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Cladophoraceae)
    Cladophora albida (Ref.24) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Cladophoraceae)
    Cladophora coelothrix (Ref.24) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Cladophoraceae)
    Cladophora japonica (Ref.24) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Cladophoraceae)
    Cladophora pellucida (Ref.24) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Cladophoraceae)
    Cladophora sericea (Ref.24) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Cladophoraceae)
    Cladophora vagabunda (Ref.24) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Cladophoraceae)
    Cladophora ohkuboana (Ref.24) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Cladophoraceae)
    Cladophora glomerata (Ref.24) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Cladophoraceae)
    Rhizoclonium grande (Ref.24) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Cladophoraceae)
    Pithophora sp. (Ref.24) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Pithophoraceae)
    Wittrockiella lyallii (Ref.24) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Pithophoraceae)
    Wittrockiella paradoxa (Ref.24) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Pithophoraceae)
    Cladophoropsis vaucheriaeformis (Ref.24) - Green alga: Siphonocladaceae (Chlorophyta - Siphonocladaceae)
    Cladophoropsis fasciculatus (Ref.24) - Green alga: Siphonocladaceae (Chlorophyta - Siphonocladaceae)
    Cladophoropsis membranacea (Ref.24) - Green alga: Siphonocladaceae (Chlorophyta - Siphonocladaceae)
    Siphonocladus tropicus (Ref.24) - Green alga: Siphonocladaceae (Chlorophyta - Siphonocladaceae)
    Pleurastrum paucicellulare (Ref.16) - Green alga: Ulvophyceae (Chlorophyta - Ulotrichales incertae sedis)
    Tetraselmis suecica (Ref.48) - Green alga: Chlorodendraceae (Chlorophyta - Chlorodendraceae)
    Tetraselmis tetrathele (Ref.48) - Green alga: Chlorodendraceae (Chlorophyta - Chlorodendraceae)
    Tetraselmis sp. (Ref.46, Ref.47) - Green alga: Chlorodendraceae (Chlorophyta - Chlorodendraceae)
    Tetraselmis chui (Ref.48) - Green alga: Chlorodendraceae (Chlorophyta - Chlorodendraceae)
    Tetraselmis marina (Ref.48) - Green alga: Chlorodendraceae (Chlorophyta - Chlorodendraceae)
    Tetraselmis rubens (Ref.48) - Green alga: Chlorodendraceae (Chlorophyta - Chlorodendraceae)
    Tetraselmis subcordiformis (Ref.48) - Green alga: Chlorodendraceae (Chlorophyta - Chlorodendraceae)
    Oedogonium cardiacum (Ref.16) - Green alga: Chlorophyceae (Chlorophyta - Oedogoniales)
    Chara gymnophylla (Ref.25) - Green plants: Charophyceae (Streptophyta - Characeae)
    Chara tomentosa (Ref.25) - Green plants: Charophyceae (Streptophyta - Characeae)
    Chara contraria (Ref.25) - Green plants: Charophyceae (Streptophyta - Characeae)
    Chara hispida (Ref.25) - Green plants: Charophyceae (Streptophyta - Characeae)
    Chara rudis (Ref.25) - Green plants: Charophyceae (Streptophyta - Characeae)
    Chara globularis (Ref.25) - Green plants: Charophyceae (Streptophyta - Characeae)
    Chara intermedia (Ref.25) - Green plants: Charophyceae (Streptophyta - Characeae)
    Chara polyacantha (Ref.25) - Green plants: Charophyceae (Streptophyta - Characeae)
    Chara aspera (Ref.25) - Green plants: Charophyceae (Streptophyta - Characeae)
    Chara foetida (Ref.16) - Green plants: Charophyceae (Streptophyta - Characeae)
    Chara vulgaris (Ref.25) - Green plants: Charophyceae (Streptophyta - Characeae)
    Nitella opaca (Ref.25) - Green plants: Charophyceae (Streptophyta - Characeae)
    Bathycoccus prasinos (Ref.46) - Green alga: Prasinophyte (Chlorophyta - Bathycoccaceae)
    Mantoniella squamata (Ref.46, Ref.47) - Green alga: Prasinophyte (Chlorophyta - Mamiellaceae)
    Nephroselmis olivace (Ref.46) - Green alga: Prasinophyte (Chlorophyta - Nephroselmidophyceae)
    Nephroselmis rotunda (Ref.46, Ref.47) - Green alga: Prasinophyte (Chlorophyta - Nephroselmidophyceae)
    Nephroselmis pyriformis (Ref.46) - Green alga: Prasinophyte (Chlorophyta - Nephroselmidophyceae)
    Prasinococcus capsulatus (Ref.46) - Green alga: Prasinophyte (Chlorophyta - Prasinococcales)
    Pyramimonas amylifera (Ref.46) - Green alga: Prasinophyte same as Polyblepharides amylifera (Chlorophyta - Pyramimonadales)
    Pyramimonas parkeae (Ref.48) - Green alga: Prasinophyte (Chlorophyta - Pyramimonadales)
    Arousa sp. (Ref.46) - Green alga: Prasinophyte (Unclassified chlorophyta - Unclassified chlorophyta)
    Chlorella pyrenoidosa (Ref.21) - Green alga: Trebouxiophyceae (Chlorophyta - Chlorellaceae)
    Muriellopsis sp. (Ref.18) - Green alga: Trebouxiophyceae (Chlorophyta - Oocystaceae)
    Botryococcus braunii (Ref.19) - Green alga: Trebouxiophyceae (Chlorophyta - Botryococcaceae)
    Botryococcus braunii Kawaguchi-1 (Ref.301) - Green alga: Trebouxiophyceae (Chlorophyta - Botryococcaceae)
    Muriella decolor (Ref.18) - Green alga: Trebouxiophyceae (Chlorophyta - Trebouxiophyceaeincertae sedis)
    Euglena rubida mainx (Ref.42) - Alga: Euglena (Euglenida - Euglenaceae)
    Olisthodiscus luteus (Ref.30) - Alga: unclassified stramenopiles ((Stramenopiles) - Unclassified stramenopiles)
    Ascophyllum nodosum (Ref.53) - Brown alga: Fucaceae ((Phaeophyceae) - Fucaceae)
    Fucus serratus (Ref.53) - Brown alga: Fucaceae ((Phaeophyceae) - Fucaceae)
    Fucus vesiculosus (Ref.53) - Brown alga: Fucaceae ((Phaeophyceae) - Fucaceae)
    Pelvetia canaliculata (Ref.53) - Brown alga: Fucaceae ((Phaeophyceae) - Fucaceae)
    Laminaria digitata (Ref.53) - Brown alga: Laminariaceae ((Phaeophyceae) - Laminariaceae)
    Nannochloropsis oculata (Ref.27, Ref.28) - Alga: Eustigmatophyceae ((Eustigmatophyceae) - Monodopsidaceae)
    Nannochloropsis salina (Ref.27, Ref.28) - Alga: Eustigmatophyceae ((Eustigmatophyceae) - Monodopsidaceae)
    Nannochloropsis gaditana (Ref.28) - Alga: Eustigmatophyceae ((Eustigmatophyceae) - Monodopsidaceae)
    Chattonella japonica (Ref.35) - Alga: Raphidophyceae ((Raphidophyceae) - Chattonellaceae)
    Lepidodinium chlorophorum (Ref.673) - Alga: Green dinoflagellate, same as Gymnodinium chlorophorum ((Alveolata) - Gymnodiniaceae)
    Spinacia oleracea L. (Ref.601) - Land plant: spinach (Streptophyta - Chenopodiaceae)
    Arabidopsis thaliana (Ref.762) - Land plant: thale-cress, a model organism (Streptophyta - Brassicaceae)
    Capsicum annuum var. lycopersiciforme flavum (Ref.283) - Land plant: yellow paprika (Streptophyta - Solanaceae)
    Passiflora edulis (Ref.693) - Land plant: yellow passion fruit (Streptophyta - Passifloraceae)
    Coffea canephora (Ref.323) - Land plant: robusta coffee (Streptophyta - Rubiaceae)
    Coffea arabica (Ref.323) - Land plant: arabica coffee (Streptophyta - Rubiaceae)
    Diospyros kaki (Ref.282) - Land plant: kaki persimmon (Streptophyta - Ebenaceae)
    Malus domestica (Ref.492) - Land plant: Rosaceae: peel and flesh of apple fruits (Streptophyta - Rosaceae)
    Mangifera indica (Ref.284) - Land plant: mango (Streptophyta - Anacardiaceae)
    Citrus reticulata (Ref.292) - Land plant: mandarin orange, tangerine (Streptophyta - Rutaceae)
    Protousnea sp. (Ref.388) - Fungi: lichen (Ascomycota - Lecanorineae)
    Cladonia sp. (Ref.609) - Fungi: lichen, ascomycetes (Ascomycota - Cladoniaceae)
    References
  • Ref.678: Chen M1, Li Y, Birch D, Willows RD., FEBS Lett. 2012 Sep 21;586(19):3249-54., "A cyanobacterium that contains chlorophyll f--a red-absorbing photopigment.", PMID: 22796191 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2012.06.045.
  • Ref.27: N. J. Antial, and J.Y. Cheng, British Phycological Journal, Volume 17, Issue 1, 1982 "The Keto carotenoids of two marine cocoid members of the eustimaphyceae" DOI:10.1080/00071618200650061 .
  • Ref.28: Luis M. Lubián, Olimpio Montero, Ignacio Moreno-Garrido, I. Emma Huertas, Cristina Sobrino, Manuel González-del Valle, Griselda Parés, Journal of Applied Phycology, October 2000, Volume 12, Issue 3-5, pp 249-255 "Nannochloropsis (Eustigmatophyceae) as source of commercially valuable pigments".
  • Ref.10: N. Schubert, E. Garcia-Mendoza, and I. Pachecho-Ruiz, J. Phycol. 42, 1208-1216 (2006) "Carotenoid composition of marine red algae".
  • Ref.12: N.I. Krinsky and R. P. Levine, Plant Physiol. Jul 1964; 39(4): 680–687. "Carotenoids of Wild Type and Mutant Strains of the Green Alga, Chlamydomonas reinhardi".
  • Ref.13: PMID: 1190948: Francis GW, Strand LP, Lien T, Knutsen G., Arch Microbiol. 1975 Aug 28;104(3):249-54. "Variations in the Carotenoid Content of Chlamydomonas reinhardii throughout the Cell cycle".
  • Ref.14: S. Tkaichi, and M. Mimuro, Plant Cell Physiol. 39(9): 968-977 (1998) "Distribution and Geometric Isomerism of Neoxanthin in Oxygenic Phototrophs: 9'-Cis, a Sole Molecular Form".
  • Ref.15: T. Sasa, S. Suda, M. M. Watanabe, S. Takaichi, Plant Cell Physiol. 33(5): 527-534(1992) "A novel carotenoid ester, Loroxanthin dodecenoate, from Pyramimonas parkeae (Prasinophyceae) and Chlorarachniophycean alga".
  • Ref.16: M. Orosa, E. Torres, P. Fidalgo, J. Abalde, Journal of Applied Phycology, October 2000, Volume 12, Issue 3-5, pp 553-556 "Production and analysis of secondary carotenoids in green algae".
  • Ref.17: H. Kleinig and F. C. Czygan (1969), Z Naturforsch B. 1969 Jul;24(7):927-30. "Lipids of Protosiphon (Chlorophyta) Carotenoids and Carotenoid Esters of five Strains of Protosiphon botryoides Klebs"　.
  • Ref.18: PMID: 10784296: Del Campo JA1, Moreno J, Rodríguez H, Vargas MA, Rivas J, Guerrero MG., J Biotechnol. 2000 Jan 7;76(1):51-9. "Carotenoid content of chlorophycean microalgae: factors determining Lutein accumulation in Muriellopsis sp. (Chlorophyta).".
  • Ref.19: Merete Grunga, Pierre Metzger, Synnove Liaaen-jensen, Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, Volume 17, Issue 4, 28 July 1989, Pages 263–269 "Primary and Secondary Carotenoids in Two Races of the Green Alga Botryocossu braunii".
  • Ref.21: B. Stephen Inbaraj, J.T. Chien, B. H. Chen. (2005); "Improved high performance liquid chromatographic method for determination of carotenoids in the microalga Chlorella pyrenoidosa".
  • Ref.24: Y. Yoshii, I,. Wakana, K. Miriya, S. Arai, K. Ueda, and I. Inouye, J. Phycol. 40, 1170-1177 (2004) "Carotenoid comositions of Cladophora Balls (Aegagropila linnaei) and some members of the Cladophorales (Ulvophyceae, Chlorophyta): their taxonomic and evolutionary implication".
  • Ref.673: Antonio Gavalas-Olea, Susana Alvarez, Pilar Riobo, Francisco Rodriguez, Jose L. Garrido, and Belen Vaz, Org Lett. 2016 Sep 16;18(18):4642-5. Epub 2016 Sep 1., "19,19’-diacyloxy signature: an atypical level of structural evolution in carotenoid pigments", doi: 10.1021/acs.orglett.6b02272.
  • Ref.25: M. Schagerl, and Clemens Pichler, Aquatic Botany 67 (2000) 117–129 "Pigment composition of freshwater charophyceae".
  • Ref.30: N. W. Withers, A. Fiksdahl, R.C. Tuttle, and S. Liaaen-Jense, Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Vol. 68B, pp. 345 to 349, 1979, "Carotenoids of the Chrysophyceae".
  • Ref.35: A.Fiksdahl, N. Withers, R. R. L. Guillard, and S. Liaaen-Jensen, Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Vol. 78B, No. 1, pp. 265-271, 1984, "Carotenoids of the Raphidophyceae - a chemosystematic contribution ".
  • Ref.42: B.Czeczuga, Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 1974, Vol. 48B, pp. 349-354, "Carotenoids in Euglena rubida mainx".
  • Ref.46: E. S. Egeland, R. R. L. Guillard, and S. Liaaen-Jensen, Phytochemistry, Vol. 44, No. 6, pp.1087-1097, 1997, "Additional carotenoid prototype representatices and general chemosystematic evaluation of carotenoids in prasinophyceae (chlorophyta)".
  • Ref.47: E. S. Egeland, W. Eikrem, J. Throndsen, C. Wilhelm, M. Zapata, and S. Liaaen-Jensen, Biochemical systematics and Ecology, Vol. 23, NO. 7/8, pp. 747-755, 1995 "Carotenoids from Further Prasinophytes".
  • Ref.48: Jose L. Carrido, Francisco Rodriguez, and Mannuel Zapata J. Phycol. 15, 366-374 (2009) "Occurrence of Loroxanthin, Loroxanthin decenoate, and Loroxanthin dodecenoate in Tetraselmis species (Prasinophyceae, Chlorophyta)".
  • Ref.53: G. Nybraaten, and S. L. Jensen, Acta Chem. Scand. Ser. B, 28,(1974), 485, "Algal Carotenoids. XII. * Chemical Reactions of Carotenoids with 2-Hydroxylated beta-Rings".
  • Ref.282: A. L. Curl, Volume 25, Issue 5, Article first published online: 25 AUG 2006, "The Carotenoids of Jappanese persimmons".
  • Ref.283: Zoltan Matus, Jozsef Deli, Jozsef Szabolcs, J. Agric. Food Chem., 1991, 39 (11), pp 1907–1914, "Carotenoid composition of yellow pepper during ripening: isolation of .beta.-cryptoxanthin 5,6-epoxide".
  • Ref.284: Adriana Z. Mercadante ,Délia B. Rodriguez-Amaya, George Britton, J. Agric. Food Chem., 1997, 45 (1), pp 120–123, "HPLC and Mass Spectrometric Analysis of Carotenoids from Mango".
  • Ref.292: Thomas Wingerath ,Wilhelm Stahl ,Dieter Kirsch, Raimund Kaufmann, and Helmut Sies, J. Agric. Food Chem., 1996, 44 (8), pp 2006–2013, DOI: 10.1021/jf960057y, "Fruit Juice Carotenol Fatty Acid Esters and Carotenoids As Identified by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization (MALDI) Mass Spectrometry".
  • Ref.301: Tonegawa, Izumi; Okada, Shigeru; Murakami, Masahiro; Yamaguchi, Katsumi, Fisheries Science (1998), 64(2), 305-308., "Pigment composition of the green microalga Botryococcus braunii Kawaguchi-1".
  • Ref.601: Andrea Bunea, Mirjana Andjelkovic, Carmen Socaciu, Otilia Bobis, Madalina Neacsu, Roland Verhe, John Van Camp, Food Chemistry 108 (2008) 649–656, "Total and individual carotenoids and phenolic acids content in fresh,Refrigerated and processed spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.)".
  • Ref.323: Andrew J. Simkin, Marcel Kuntz, Helene Moreau, James McCarthy, Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 48 (2010) pp.434-442, "Carotenoid profiling and the expression of carotenoid biosynthetic genes in developing coffee grain".
  • Ref.388: B. Czeczuga, E. Czeczuga-Semeniuk, S. Calvelo, and S. Liberatore, Journal of Botanical Taxonomy and Geobotany, Volume 116, Issue 3-4, pages 195–200, August 2005, "Carotenoids in representatives of the Protousnea (Parmeliaceae), endemic genus from South America".
  • Ref.492: Péter Molnár, József Deli, Toru Tanaka,Yoshiyuki Kann, Satoru Tani, Nóra Gyémánt, Joseph Molnár ,and Masami Kawase, Phytotherapy Research, Volume 24, Issue 5, pages 644–648, May 2010, “Carotenoids with anti-Helicobacter pylori activity from Golden deliciousapple”.
  • Ref.609: Prof. Dr. B. Czeczuga and Doz. Dr. R. Doll, Journal of Botanical Taxonomy and Geobatany, Volume 102, Issue 5-6, pages 431–436, 1991, DOI: 10.1002/fedr.19911020518, "The carotenoid content of lichens of the Cladonia genus from Mecklenburg".
  • Ref.693: M. Yano et al., Food Science and Technology Research, 11(1), pp.13-18, 2005, "Quantitation of Carotenoids in Raw and Processed Fruits in Japan", DOI: https://doi.org/10.3136/fstr.11.13.
  • Ref.762: Kerry L. Taylor, Anika E. Brackenridge, Melane A. Vivier, Anita Oberholster, Journal of Chromatography A, 1121 (2006) 83–91, "High-performance liquid chromatography profiling of the major carotenoids in Arabidopsis thaliana leaf tissue".
  • Ref.428: Peter Jahns, Dariusz Latowski, Kazimierz Strzalka, Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1787 (2009) 3–14, "Mechanism and regulation of the violaxanthin cycle: The role of antenna proteins and membrane lipids".
  • Ref.415: Takuji Tanaka, Masahito Shnimizu, and Hisataka Moriwaki, Molecules 2012, 17, 3202-3242; doi:10.3390/molecules17033202, "Cancer Chemoprevention by Carotenoids".
  • Ref.503: Javier de las Rivas, Anunciacion Abadia, and Javier Abadia, Plant Physiol. (1989) 91, 190-192, “A New Reversed Phase-HPLC Method Resolving All Major Higher Plant Photosynthetic Pigments1”.
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    • CAS
    126-29-4
    Links to other DB
    KEGG COMPOUND: C08614
    KNApSAcK: C00003787
    LipidBank: VCA0060
    MassBank: CA000114

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